信阳师范大学英语语言学_联大系统成人高考函授考试答案

Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme, and allophone, and also how they are related.

What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?

How many kinds of meaning did G. Leech find and study?

what is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in terms of linguistic determinism?

what.s the difference between pidgins and creoles?

答案是：A pidgin is a special language variety|that mixes or blends languages|and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposed such as trading|the term is believed to have originated from|the pronunciation of the english word "business" in Chinese pidgin English|pidgins arose from a blending of several|languages such as Chinese dialects and English|African dialects and French|African dialects and Portuguese|usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin|in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary|is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries|in order to communicate with people whose languages.

What does pragmatics study? how does it differ from semantics?

答案是：Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication|It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics|it is a sentence of “what do you mean by X”|That is| the speaker of this utterance is actually asking for his/her partner’s intention|or what the partner intends the utterance to mean by X|or rather, the speaker is using this utterance as a denial of or protest against what the partner has asserted implicitly|Thus

what is "standard dialect"? is there only one form of standard variety in English?

Compare derivational affixes and inflectional affixes in English.

答案是：Inflectional morpheme do not change|the word class of the word but only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem|That is it provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item|In English|inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes|Derivative morpheme often change the lexical meaning and the word class|That is it provides lexical information to the existing lexical item.

What are the major functions of language?

答案是：Language can serve two major functions|namely|interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication|Firstly|language functions as a means of interpersonal communication|when language users use it to convey information|thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other’s behavior|Secondly|it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication.

what abilities does Aptitude Test try to measure?

答案是：Aptitude test attempts to measure the learner's aptitude or natural abilities to learn languages|this type of test usually consists of several different tests|which measure respectively the ability to identify and remember sound patterns|in a new language|the ability to identify the grammatical functions of different parts of sentences|the ability to work out meanings without explanation in a new language|and the ability to remember words|rules and so on in a new language.

What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?

答案是：Maxim of Quantity|Maxim of Quality|Maxim of Relation|Maxim of Manner.

What are the five stages of TG Grammar?

What are the differences between a root and a stem?

How does a sentence differ from an utterance?

答案是：A sentence is a grammatical concept|It usually consists of a subject and predicate|An utterance is a unit of communication|It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value|If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter|in the course of communication|it becomes an utterance|Whether “Marry is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on|how we look at it .

in what aspects do linguistics and language teaching differ?

答案是：language is viewed as a system of forms in linguistics|but it is regarded as a set of skills in the field of language teaching|linguistic research is concerned with the establishment of theories|which explains the phenomena of language|whereas language teaching aims at the learner's mastery of language.

surface structure

答案是：Surface structure results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence. Or: The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which deeply corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive .

Deep structure

答案是：Deep structure results from insertion of lexical item into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules. Or: The deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.

( ) After comparing “They stopped at the end of the corridor” with “At the end of the corridor, they stopped”, you may f

答案是：B

( ) Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they were separated in traditional grammar. A.正确 B.

答案是：A

( ) Root also falls into two categories: free and bound. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) The voiced dental fricative is /z/. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) Descriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) Semanticly, BEEF is excluded in MEAT. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) A root is not always a free form. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) /n/ is one of syllabic consonants. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) The reason for French to use cheval and for English to use horse to refer to the same animal is inexplicable. A.正确

答案是：A

( )The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the r

答案是：A

( ) In the following pair of sentences, sentence (b) presupposes sentence (a): (a) John managed to finish in time. (b) J

答案是：A

( ) All words contain a root morpheme. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( )The sound /p/ in the word “expensive” is pronounced as a voiceless consonant. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k____ of the rules of his language.

答案是：categories

( ) A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) The meaning relationship between MAN and GROEN-UP is hyponymous because the semantic features of MAN are included in

答案是：A

( ) Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) The word “hour” contains a diphthong and a pure vowel. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) “Tulip”, “rose”, and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”, therefore they are superordinates of “flow

答案是：B

( ) “Kids” and “children” are synonyms despite their stylistic difference. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) The words “water” and “teacher” have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

( ) In English, we have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：A

( ) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function. A.正确 B.错误

答案是：B

code switching

答案是：a speaker does not necessarily have to follow a particular variety or dialect all the time in the course of communication. he may change form the standard language to the non-standard language, he may shift his subject matter which dominates the incidence of vocabulary, he may move from one point on the formality scale to another point. this linguistic behavior is referred to as code-switching.

Error analysis

答案是：error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to the language learner. here, "error" refers generally to the learner's misuse or misunderstanding of the target language, may it be grammatical or pragmatic.

interlanguage

答案是：the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. as the name signals, interlanguage is a language system between the target language and the learner's native language. it is imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner's native language.

negative transfer

答案是：in learning a second language learners will subconsciously use their mother tongue knowledge. this is known as language transfer. when the structures of the two languages are different, negative transfer or interference occurs and results in errors.

taboo

答案是：a linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" soceity from general use. obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.

social dialect

答案是：social dialect refers to a dialect associated with a given demographic group (e.g. women versus men, older versus younger speakers, or members of different social classes).

diglossia

答案是：the term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a socialinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. but instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. it is a matter of formality in nature.

sociolect

答案是：dialects which identify where a person is in terms of a social scale are called "social dialects"or "class dialects" or "socialects" for short.

idiolect

答案是：just as every speech community has a dialect, every speaker has his own pet words and expressions and special way of expressing his ideas in language. this language variety of individual users is called "idiolect".

Synonymy

答案是：Synonymy is used to mean sameness or does similarity of meaning. Total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent, they are different from one way or another.

pragmatics

答案是：Pragmatics is the study of how context (e.g. time, place, social relationship between speaker and hearer, and speaker’s assumptions about the hearer’s beliefs) influences the interpretation of meaning. Another general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language to communicate in utterances.

Gradable antonyms

答案是：(1) The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Words do not contrast each other only on a single dimension; in fact, oppositeness can be found on different dimensions and different kinds of antonyms have been recognized. (2) Gradable antonyms are antonyms that are gradable because there are often intermediate forms betweent the two members of a pair. For example, “old” and “young” are immediately recognized as antonyms, but they stand for two extremes, between which there exist intermediate forms representing differing degrees of being old or young, such as “middle-aged”, “mature,” “elderly”.

contexturalism

答案是：Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context.” Every utterance occurs in a particular spatio-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” us another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.

A________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in d

答案是：cquisition

The c_______ analysis was founded on the belief that it was possible, by establishing the linguistic differences between

答案是：onstrastive

I________ motivation occurs when the learner.s goal is functional and intergrative motivation occurs when the learner.s

答案是：nstrumental

Languists often use the term native language or morther tongue instead of first language, and t_____ language instead of

答案是：arget

In order to acquire a second language, learners will subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a sec

答案是：ransfer

I___________ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.

答案是：nterlanguage

The development of a first or native language is called first language a____________.

答案是：cquisition

C_________ may take place in a conversation when one speaker uses one language and the other speaker answers in a differ

答案是：ode-switching

A s________ community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of l

答案是：peech

The process of converting a message into a signal by means of which it can be communicated to other individuals is calle

答案是：ncoding

sense

答案是：Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in. For example, the word “dog” is given the definition of “a domesticated canine mammal, occuring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.” this does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies too any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So this is the sense of the word “dog.”

C-command

答案是：The similarity or general feature in two government relations such as “speak about the language ” is technically called constituent command, c-command for short, that is, c-command refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well.

Endocentric construction

答案是：An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed costruction.

concord

答案是：Concord, also known as agreement, may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g. “man runs,” “men run.”

theme

答案是：Theme is the thematic role of the noun phrase whose referent undergoes the action of the verb. Sometimes called patient.

root

答案是：A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are taken away. All words contain a root morpheme.

inflectional morpheme

答案是：Inflectional morpheme do not change the word class of the word but only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. That is it provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes.

suprasegmental

答案是：Suprasegmental, used particularly by American linguists, refers to a unit that extends over more than one sound in an utterance, e.g. stress and tone.

vowels

答案是：Vowels are a major type of speech in terms of their articulatory characteristics. They are sound segments produced when the airstreams that come from the lungs meet with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Vowels function as the main sounds of syllables, either alone or combined with consonants. They are the nucleus of the syllable. It can be divided into pure vowels, semi-vowels, diphthongs. Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: (1) the position of tongue (2) the openness of the mouth (3) the shape of the lips (4) the length of the vowels.

langue and parole

答案是：F. de Saussure refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers to parole to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of language. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on linguists.

phatic communication

答案是：Phatic communication refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintain social contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells; comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language is insincere but important. If you don’t say, it will ruin your friendship etc.

language

答案是：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

arbitrariness

答案是：Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. It is the core feature of language.

design features

答案是：Design feature refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.

S_____ are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.

答案是：ociolects

One way out of the communication dilemma is language s_________ known as language planning.

答案是：tandardization

S_________ is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, f

答案是：lang

A pidgin typically lacks in i________ morphemes.

答案是：nflectional

The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d________ and linguistic relativism.

答案是：eterminism

The brain.s neurological specialization for language is called linguistic l__________ , which is specific to human being

答案是：ateralization

Languages differ in many ways, speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, relative to

答案是：elativism

There are occasions when one can think without l_________ , just as one may speak without thinking.

答案是：anguage

P____________ studies language in relation to mind.

答案是：sycholinguistics

The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h________, one on the right and one on the left.

答案是：Emispheres

Terms like “desk” and “stool” are h____ of the term “furniture.”

答案是：yponyms

According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able to generate all and o____ the grammatical sentences of

答案是：nly

A l_______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of sy

答案是：ocutionary

P______ were sentences that did not state a fact of describe a state, and were not verifiable.

答案是：erformatives

The notion of c________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

答案是：Ontext

There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relatio

答案是：uantity

Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to c_______ implicatures.

答案是：onversational

P______ can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentence to affect successful communication.

答案是：ragmatics

H_____ are written identically but sound differently.

答案是：omographs

R_______ is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between form and the

答案是：Eference

When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h_______.

答案是：omophones

E______ is a relation of inclusion.

答案是：ntailment

That the denial of one member of two words implies the assertion of the other is the characteristic of c_____ antonyms.

答案是：omplementary

The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meanings, words that are opposite in meaning are a______.

答案是：ntobyms

S______ is a phenomenon in semantics, referring to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

答案是：ynonymy

The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is l__________.

答案是：inear

C_______ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

答案是：ase

P_______ structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.

答案是：hrase

In a tree diagram, the points at which the tree branches at various levels are called b_______ nodes.

答案是：ranching

Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic c______.

答案是：ategories

Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k____ of the rules of his language

答案是：Knowledge

Language exists in time and change through time. The description of a language at some of point of time is called a s___

答案是：ynchronic

D____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two level

答案是：uality

The description of a language as it changes through time is a d____ study.

答案是：iachronic

D____ means that language can be used to refer things which present of not present, real or imagined matters in the past

答案是：isplacement

Linguistics is generally defined as the s____ study of language.

答案是：cientific

Modern linguistics gives priority to the s____ form of language.

答案是：poken

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d____.

答案是：escriptive

Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s____ stress.

答案是：entence

Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s____ rules.

答案是：equential